Aquí, en "Crunch Time: Fiscal Crises and the Role of MonetaryPolicy", de David Greenlaw, James D. Hamilton, Peter Hooper, Frederic S. Mishkin, se nos ofrece un panorama bastante bien articulado del futuro de las políticas fiscales y monetarias que estamos ahora padeciendo. Es un papel neutral, lo que le hace más interesante porque recorre los argumentos más fundamentados en pro y en contra de cada enfoque. Con todo, hay un sesgo más o menos velado a favor de avalar el "conservadurismo europeo", que intento criticar. Como siempre intento que se pueda leer siguiendo el texto en Español, sin tener que leer detenidamente las citas, aunque son muy interesantes.
Y entonces entra a escena la Politica Mometaria. La política monetaria condiciona todo ello, pero no en un sentido único: una política de consolidación fiscal exige, en principio, una política monetaria laxa que contrarreste el efecto negativo sobre el PIB de los recortes fiscales. Sin embargo, hay una fuerte corriente de opinión en contra, que podemos denominar la corriente europea. Esta corriente favorece una política monetaria contractiva cuando se precisa una consolidación fiscal, con argumentos como los que siguen (dicha tesis se llama tough love Policy):
La visión alternativa a la "Tough love Policy" (¿daño te hará quien bien te quiere?) es la del simple sentido común. Al final, los autores concluyen que una Tough love Policy es contraproductiva,One view supporting a “tough love” policy that is prominent in European policy circles and among critics of the Federal Reserve’s quantitative easing is that expansionary monetary policy reduces the incentives for fiscal consolidation. Another argument fortighter monetary policy is that concerns about fiscal imbalances might unhinge inflation expectations, which could lead to a rise in interest rates that makes fiscal consolidationmore difficult, and so tighter monetary policy is needed to anchor inflation expectationsand keep interest rates low.An alternative view is that easier monetary policy facilitates successful fiscal consolidations because it encourages higher nominal GDP growth, thereby raising thedenominator of the debt-to-GDP ratio, and lowering this ratio. Furthermore, in contrastto the “tough love” view, anticipation of easier monetary policy which results in highernominal GDP growth and lower interest rates may encourage fiscal authorities toimplement a successful fiscal consolidation because it will have a higher likelihood ofsuccess.A more contentious issue is whethertighter monetary policy, which Hellebrandt, Posen and Tolle (2012) characterize as a“tough love” policy, makes it more likely that there will be a successful fiscalconsolidation.
The most striking example that casts doubt on the “tough love” policy is that ofthe United Kingdom in the interwar period. In the aftermath of World War I, the UnitedKingdom’s debt-to-GDP ratio climbed to close to 140% of GDP, and the price level haddoubled from prewar levels. The U.K. government then implemented a massive fiscalausterity, with primary surpluses in the 1920s of around 7% of GDP, while at the sametime pursuing very tight monetary policy with policy rates raised to 7% to get back toprewar parity, despite ongoing deflation. The remarkable outcome of thismonetary/fiscal policy mix was that instead of the debt-to-GDP ratio falling with theprimary surpluses, it continued to rise, reaching 170% by 1930 and then rising further to190% with the onset of the Great Depression.Both theory and evidence suggest that a policy of “tough love” is counterproductive. This has important implications for the current situation in the Eurozone, which is pursuing short-run fiscal austerity and at the same time has asignificantly tighter monetary policy than the United States or the United Kingdom. The key lesson as stated in IMF (2012) is that easier monetary policy is a necessary conditionfor successful fiscal consolidations.
Esto es lo que llaman los autores "Fiscal Dominance", que tiene un interés especial para los problemas del euro que, sorprendentemente, podría convertirse en un caso "Argentina". Argentina es un país propenso a la inflación porque las provincias tienen libertad de endeudamiento sin tasa, que luego endosan al, gobierno central. Éste luego monetiza esa deuda, lo que aumenta la inflación. Es un modelo posible para el Euro, si los países se rebelaran contra la autoridad fiscal (que en realidad no hay tal autoridad), lo que obligaría al BCE a elegir entre salvar al euro abriendo las compuertas del dinero y la inflación, o negarse a comprar deuda de esos países lo que reproduciría los casos de todos conocidos de Grecia el Al.
En otras palabras, si Europa no se ha convertido en un caso argentino (¿la argentinización de Europa?), es por que hay un sabueso llamado Merkel que se ha opuesto con fuerza a la relajación fiscal y a su monetización. De verdad, ¿tengo que estar agradecido a Merkel porque ha conseguido que el Euro no se convierta en una incontrolable Argentina? Me permito dudarlo.Fiscal dominance forces the central bank to pursue inflationary monetary policyeven if it has a strong commitment to control inflation, say with an inflation target. If the central bank doesnot monetize the debt, then interest rates on the government debt will rise sharply,causing the economy to contract. Indeed, without monetization, fiscal dominance mayresult in the government defaulting on its debt, which would lead to a severe financialdisruption, producing an even more severe economic contraction. Hence, the centralbank will in effect have little choice and will be forced to purchase the government debtand monetize it, eventually leading to a surge in inflation.We could already be seeing the beginning of this scenario in Europe. The threatof defaults on sovereign debt in countries such as Ireland, Portugal, Spain and Italy hasled the ECB to purchase individual countries’ sovereign debt, with the latestmanifestation being the announcement in September 2012 that it will engage in what ithas called Outright Monetary Transactions (OMT). These OMT transactions involvepurchases of sovereign debt in the secondary markets of these countries, subject to theirgovernments accepting a program of conditionality from the European Financial StabilityFacility/European Stability Mechanism and the IMF. The ECB describes thesetransactions as monetary in nature because they “aim at safeguarding an appropriatemonetary policy transmission,” with the reasoning that they are “monetary” because lowECB policy rates are not translating into low interest rates in these countries.Nonetheless, these transactions are in effect monetization of individual countries’government debt (even if they are sterilized for the Eurosystem as a whole). The ECB’spurchase of individual country’s sovereign debt arises from the difficult position it faces.If the ECB does not do what ECB President Mario Draghi has described as “doingwhatever it takes” to lower interest rates in these countries, the alternative is deep recessions in these countries or outright defaults on their debt, which would createanother “Lehman moment” in which the resulting financial shock could send theEurozone over the cliff.It is true that the ECB’s bond purchasing programs will not result in inflation ifthe sovereigns whose debt is being purchased get their fiscal house in order and fiscaldominance is avoided. However, this is an important if. Significant progress is beingmade on the fiscal front in some of these countries, but as noted in Section 3, muchremains to be done in other cases. Indeed, there is still a danger that Europe may finditself with what we will refer to as the “Argentina problem”. Argentina has had a longhistory of fiscal imbalances that have led to high inflation, and this continues to this day.The problem in Argentina is that its provinces overspend and are always bailed out by thecentral government. The result is a permanent fiscal imbalance for the centralgovernment, which then results in monetization of the debt by the central bank and highinflation. Thus we see at least a risk that the Eurozone is on a path to become more like Argentina (which of course is why German central bankers are most concerned), withfiscal dominance a real possibility and high inflation the result. This possibility is a realone despite what the Maastricht Treaty specifies about the role of the ECB and whatpolicymakers in the ECB want.Argentina (which of course is why German central bankers are most concerned), withfiscal dominance a real possibility and high inflation the result. This possibility is a realone despite what the Maastricht Treaty specifies about the role of the ECB and whatpolicymakers in the ECB want.
Bien; entonces nos hemos librado de ese "terrorífico" escenario, a cambio de caer una sima peor: un paro de 6 millones, y al borde del abismo de la deflación. ¿Realmente es que no hay alternativa? Argentinización o miseria durante décadas? Sí, ya sé, aguantar, y aguantar, hasta que seamos una Union Política, o al menos Fiscal y Bancaria, entonces... ¿Entonces qué? Si Alemania acepta alguna vez tal cosa es a condición de que su peso sea decisivo en los órganos decisorios. Entonces (ad calendas griegas)... No sé. Demasiado lejos.
Al final es que no me creo que Alemania vaya a ceder soberanía a un órgano supranacional sobre temas que son tan sensibles a su población. Me parece imposible. Una vez más, es un combate entre la naciones por ceder soberanía. Hasta ahora ha durado porque es un combate asimétrico, en el que naciones como España se han rendido de antemano. Alemania aguanta el euro porque ha conseguido dominarlo. Pero ahora lo que está en juego es algo mucho más fuerte, y no creo que traspase esa línea roja.
En todo caso, este conflicto larvado entre la disciplina fiscal y la monetaria siempre se ha dado en todos los países, pero cuando las fuerzas que tienden a la coordinación dominan, no es un problema decisivo. Siempre habrá una tendencia al entendimiento. El problema se agrava en Europa porque el Euro no es un Área Monetaria Óptima, las responsabilidades están mal fijadas, emborronadas, y hay demasiada presión bajo cuerda sobre las instituciones claves como el BCE. Y eso será siempre así.
Las políticas económicas son políticas, que quiere decir que están, directa o indirectamente, en manos de políticos, asesorados por técnicos, o en manos de técnicos, presionados por políticos. Cuanta más lejanía haya entre el gobierno y el banco emisor, más difícil será fijar el papel de cada uno. Como decía Nick Rowe, "cuando hay una crisis, el banco central necesita el apoyo del gobierno. ¿En qué gobierno busca apoyo el BCE?".
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